Their brain develops from the lateral lips - an embryonic neurogenic region surrounding the eyes - and contains all major lobes of the adult structure in miniature form 18, 19, see Fig. At this point, the free swimming paralarvae undergo a planktonic phase before they adapt to a benthic lifestyle 17. The common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, lays over ten thousands of transparent eggs, which take approximately one month to complete embryonic development and hatching 16. Whether these peculiar expansions have contributed to cell type diversity in octopus is unknown. These gene families have known roles in brain development and neural wiring in complex-brain species 13– 15. This pivotal study highlights the expansion of gene families such as protocadherins (PCDH), G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) and Zinc-finger transcription factors (ZnF) in Octopus bimaculoides 12. Since the first octopus genome was published in 2015 12, there has been increasing interest in cephalopod biology and neuroscience. Young 6, the molecular signature of these cell types, and whether such a signature is similar to certain cells in the fly or mouse nervous system, remains unresolved. Although cell types present in the adult octopus brain have been extensively characterized morphologically by J.Z. The central nervous system of an adult octopus consists of 200 million cells, which is comparable with the number of neurons in the brain of a tree shrew 5, 11. The vertical lobe has been posited to be the functional analog of the invertebrate mushroom body and the mammalian pallium 9, 10. Perhaps the most intriguing part of the octopus brain is the vertical lobe, with its 26 million neurons 5. Even if it is generally accepted that complex brains and intelligence arose multiple times during evolution 3, 7, 8, the necessary building principles to create complex brains remain unknown. The octopus brain consists of: (1) two optic lobes that are involved in visual sensory processing and memory storage of visual information, (2) the supraesophageal mass, a sensory-motor, associative and integrative center, which contributes to long-term memory storage and (3) the subesophageal mass, responsible for motor and visceral coordination and other sensory processing 6. Octopuses have a large centralized brain with more than 30 differentiated lobes and an intricate organization to support the transfer, integration and computation of information 5, 6. Although the basic design of an octopus brain seems typically invertebrate-like, with neuropil surrounded by a layer of monopolar neuronal cell bodies, its anatomical complexity is unparalleled among invertebrates. They can display a range of complex behaviors like problem-solving, tool use and millisecond camouflaging skills, for which higher cognitive functions are likely required 1– 4. Cephalopods, such as cuttlefish, squid and octopus, are enigmatic organisms that have evolved impressive cognitive capabilities.
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